Name __________________________

Biology –EOCT Review Sheet

Topic 1: Science Process Skills and Lab Safety

Steps of the scientific method – (1) State the problem, (2) Gather background information about the problem, (3) Form a hypothesis, (4) Design an experiment to test your hypothesis, (5) Do the experiment, make observations, collect and organize data, (6) Analyze your data to see if your hypothesis was right and state your conclusions about what you learned about the problem.

Controlled experiment – Two situations are tested. They are exactly alike except that one thing is different in the two groups. That is the variable being tested. Only one variable at a time is tested. All other conditions of the experiment are controlled (kept the same for both groups).

Safety Procedures – review safe and unsafe laboratory behaviors

Topic 2: Research and the Nature of Biology

Be able to demonstrate how to use reference sources to find and evaluate information related to a research question.

Biology is the study of living things. It has many more specific branches such as botany (study of plants), zoology (study of animals), ecology (study of relationships between living things and the non-living world), genetics (study of heredity), mycology (study of fungi), microbiology (study of microscopic living things), taxonomy (study of classification) and many more.

What do these words mean? Unicellular, multicellular, controlled experiment, autotroph, heterotroph, prokaryote, eukaryote, asexual reproduction, sexual reproduction, homeostasis, hypothesis, theory.

Topic 3: Cellular Biology – Structure

Living things have characteristics that distinguish them from non-living matter.

a. All living things are made of cells.

b. All living things are highly organized at the molecular level and also at higher levels.

c. All living things use energy.

d. All living things maintain a stable internal environment even when conditions outside their bodies change (homeostasis).

e. All living things grow by cell division or cell enlargement.

f. All living things reproduce organisms like themselves.

g. All living things use DNA as their genetic material

The Cell Theory has three parts:

h. All living things are made of cells.

i. Cells are the smallest structural and functional unit of life.

j. Cells only come from other pre-existing cells.

Common cell organelles include the following: Most of these organelles are found only in eukaryotes.

k. Cell Membrane (plasma membrane) – separates the cell from its surroundings and controls what enters and leaves the cell (found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes). The cell membrane is selectively permeable. It only lets some things pass through it.

l. Nucleus – is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope and contains the DNA of the cell. It is the cell’s control center.

m. Endoplasmic Reticulum – is a series of membranes connected to the nuclear envelope and allows materials to be transported quickly throughout the cell. There are two types: rough (with attached ribosomes) where many proteins are assembled, and smooth (without ribosomes) which synthesizes steroids, regulates calcium levels, and breaks down toxic substances

n. Golgi Apparatus – processes and packages substances made by the cell to get them ready for export out of the cell

o. Lysosomes – contain digestive enzymes that break down food molecules, old organelles, and foreign substances that the cell has taken in

p. Vacuoles – store enzymes, waste products, and water

q. Mitochondria –where the Krebs Cycle and the electron transport chain carry out aerobic respiration and ATP is generated

r. Ribosomes – synthesize proteins

s. Chloroplast – found in plant cells, but not in animal cells; where photosynthesis occurs

t. Cilia and Flagella – move cells through their surroundings or move materials over the cell surface

u. Microtubules and Microfilaments – help to support the cell, provide its shape, and also move chromosomes during mitosis

v. Cell Wall – found in plant cells, bacterial cells, fungal cells, but not animal cells; this is outside the cell membrane and gives the cell support and protection

Topic 4: Cell Biology – Homeostasis

Homeostasis is critical to cell survival because cells must control what enters and leaves them.

Substances enter and leave cells and their organelles by two types of processes: active transport and passive transport.

	Active Transport	Passive Transport
Requires the cell to use energy	Ö
Happens without energy use		Ö
Materials move from high to low concentration		Ö
Materials move from low to high concentration	Ö
Osmosis		Ö
Diffusion		Ö
Facilitated Diffusion		Ö
Sodium-Potassium Pump	Ö
Proton Pump	Ö
Endocytosis	Ö
Exocytosis	Ö

Examples of homeostatic mechanisms include the cell membrane of all cells and contractile vacuoles in many unicellular protests which pump out water that flows into the cells by osmosis. Humans have many homeostatic mechanisms, such as those that maintain blood chemistry and body temperature, for example.

The fluid surrounding a cell can be hypertonic to the cell, hypotonic to the cell, or isotonic.

Net H₂O movement OUT No Net H₂O movement Net H₂O movement OUT

Important to homeostasis, osmosis is the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a high to a low concentration. Plant and animal cells react differently when put into solutions of solute concentrations. Both plant and animal cells will shrivel up when put into a hypertonic solution. When they are put into a hypotonic solution, they react differently. The animal cell will take in water until it bursts and dies (plasmolysis). Because the plant cell is surrounded by a cell wall, it will only take in enough water to push the cell against the cell wall. The inflow of water will stop and the plant cell will survive.

Topic 5: Biochemistry

A. Inorganic chemistry review:

Particle	Location in Atom	Charge	Mass in a.m.u.
electron	Energy levels of electron cloud	- 1	0
proton	Nucleus	+ 1	1
neutron	Nucleus	0	1

	pH	Red litmus turns this color	Blue litmus turns this color	Has excess H⁺ions	Has excess (OH)^- ions	Example
Strong acid	1-3	Red	Red	Ö		Stomach acid
Weak acid	3-6.99	Red	Red	Ö		Vinegar
Pure water	7	Red	Blue			Distilled water
Weak base	7.01 - 10	Blue	Blue		Ö	Shampoo
Strong base	11-14	Blue	blue		Ö	Drain cleaner

Organic chemistry review: Living things are mainly composed of six elements: carbon, hydrogen oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. All living things contain carbon.

All living things need water. Three characteristics of water that make it important to living things are (1) its polarity allows it to dissolve polar covalent compounds and also ionic compounds (2) it forms hydrogen bonds that cause cohesion (water molecules stick together) and adhesion (water molecules stick to other molecules) and (3) water is a heat sink—it takes a lot of heat energy to change the temperature of water, so the presence of water in living things helps them to maintain the moderate temperature range they need to survive.

Living things are composed of four main types of very large molecules (macromolecules).

	Carbohydrate	Lipid	Nucleic Acid	Protein
Monomer	Simple sugars like glucose	Fatty acids	Nucleotides	Amino acids
Polymer	Starches or structural carbohydrates	Triglyceride fats, steroids	DNA and RNA	Polypeptide chains, proteins
2 Examples	Amylase (starch) Cellulose and Chitin (structural)	Testosterone Estrogen Fat deposits in cells	DNA and RNA	Insulin Hemoglobin Catalase
Uses in living things	Energy storage or structural components of cells	Energy storage Chemical messengers	(Genetic information) They code for the production of proteins.	Enzymes Structural components of cells

Topic 6: Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are of critical importance to living things because they form a cycle by which energy enters and moves through the living world. Photosynthesis is performed by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. The chemical equation for photosynthesis is:

CO₂ + H₂O + energy from the sun → C₆H₁₂O₅(glucose) + O₂

A. Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of cells. There are two parts to

photosynthesis: (1) the light reactions, which use the energy of sunlight to make two

energy carriers, ATP and NADPH and (2) the dark reactions, which use the ATP and

NADPH to fix carbon from atmospheric CO₂ to make carbohydrates. The fixation of

carbon during the dark reactions is called the Calvin Cycle. H₂O molecules are split

during the light reactions, and O₂ molecules are released to the atmosphere. The light

reactions MUST have light to happen, but the dark reactions can happen in either

darkness or in the light. Plants are green because the pigment chlorophyll absorbs

other colors of light and reflects green light. The best wavelengths for photosynthesis

are in the red and blue range.

B. Respiration takes place in all living cells—not just animal cells. In respiration, the

energy in the bonds of the glucose molecule is transformed into ATP, which is easily

used by cells to supply energy for their needed chemical reactions. Although all cells

carry out respiration, not all cells can perform aerobic respiration, which is the most

efficient type of respiration. The chemical equation that describes cellular respiration

is the opposite of the one for photosynthesis.

C₆H₁₂O₅(glucose) + O₂→ CO₂ + H₂O + chemical energy (ATP)

Subprocess of Cellular Respiration	In what part of the cell?	Starting products?	End Products?	How many ATP produced?
Glycolysis	Cytoplasm	Glucose + 2 ATP	2 NADH and 2 Pyruvate (also called pyruvic acid----if converted to acetic acid and then Acetyl CoA for entry into Krebs Cycle, 2CO₂ + 2 more NADH are produced	Net gain of 2 ATP
Lactic Acid Fermentation (in the absence of O₂) --------------------- Alcoholic Fermentation (in the absence of O₂)	Cytoplasm	Pyruvic acid + NADP	Lactic acid + NAD⁺ --------------------- Ethanol + CO₂ + NAD⁺	No net ATP are produced, but NAD⁺ is regenerated, which allows glycolysis to continue
Krebs Cycle (in the presence of O₂)	Mitochondrial matrix	Acetyl CoA	4CO₂ + 6NADH + 2FADH₂	Net gain of 2 ATP
Electron Transport Chain (in the presence of O₂)	Mitochondrial inner membrane	NADH + FADH₂	6NAD⁺ + 6FAD + 6 H₂O	Net gain of 34 ATP

Topic 7: Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is important to living things because proteins often act as enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions of the cell. Enzymes will not work properly if they do not have the correct three dimensional shapes—they would be unable to bind to their substrate molecules. The shape of enzymes is determined by the sequence of their amino acids. This sequence is encoded in the DNA of the cell.

Structure of DNA—In the 1950’s James Watson and Francis Crick discovered how the unique structure of DNA is able to allow it to replicate itself and also to encode the instructions for making the polypeptide chains that form proteins. DNA’s structure is often referred to as a double helix or a twisted step ladder. DNA is a polymer built of monomer subunits called nucleotides. A nucleotide consists of a sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases: adenine or guanine (purines) thymine and cytosine (pyrimidines). The sides of the DNA chain are formed from alternating molecules of the sugar deoxyribose and phosphate groups. The nitrogen bases form the rungs of the DNA ladder.

Structure of DNA

As shown above, the nitrogen bases of DNA can only pair up in a certain way—this is referred to as Chargaff’s Rules (also called base-pairing rules). Adenine can only pair with thymine and guanine can only pair with cytosine.

When DNA replicates, each side chain is used as a template to make the other half of the DNA molecule. This is called "semi-conservative replication" because half of each original chain is saved for the two new DNA strands.

The structure of RNA molecules differs from DNA in several important ways:

	DNA	RNA
Name of 5-carbon sugar in nucleotide units	Deoxyribose	Ribose
How many chains in molecule?	2	1
Names of Nitrogen Bases in nucleotides	Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine	Adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine

Protein synthesis involves DNA molecules and also three types of RNA molecules: messenger RNA (m-RNA), ribosomal RNA (r-RNA), and transfer RNA (t-RNA) Protein synthesis takes place in two stages: transcription and translation.

	Transcription	Translation
Location in cell?	In the nucleus	In the cytoplasm on ribosomes
Process?	One DNA chain is used as a template to make a m-RNA chain	A m-RNA chain attaches to a ribosome. As the ribosome moves along the m-RNA chain, t-RNA molecules briefly bind with the m-RNA chain and bring amino acids to build a polypeptide chain
Beginning materials	DNA molecule, m-RNA nucleotides	m-RNA chain, ribosome, t-RNA molecules attached to amino acids
End products	m-RNA strand	Polypeptide chain

Topic 8: Genetics (Cell Division)

Phases of the cell cycle

G₁ – (Growth 1) cells spend most of their lives in this part of Interphase. They grow and carry out normal metabolic activities.

S – (Synthesis ) DNA is copied in this part of Interphase in preparation for cell division.

G₂ – (Growth 2) cells continue to grow and other cell organelles are copied.

M – (Mitosis) division of the nucleus

C – (Cytokinesis) division of the cell cytoplasm

Phases of Mitosis (PMAT)

Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

	Mitosis	Meiosis
Purpose of This Type of Cell Division	Growth, tissue repair, asexual reproduction	Production of gametes for sexual reproduction
Parent Cell Chromosome Number	Diploid	Diploid
Daughter Cell Chromosome Number	Diploid	Haploid
Number of Daughter Cells Produced	2	4: 4 sperm/mother cell in males but only one egg + three polar bodies/mother cell in females
Number of Times DNA is Copied	1	1
Number of Cell Division	1	2
Comparison of Mother Cell and Daughter Cells	Genetically Identical	Genetically Different
Shuffling of DNA?	NO	YES
Crossing-over happens?	NO	YES–during Prophase 1

Topic 9: Mendelian Genetics

A. Vocabulary terms:

i. Heredity is the passing on of traits from parents to offspring.

ii. Genetics is the branch of biology that studies heredity.

iii. Gene is a piece of DNA that codes for the production of a polypeptide chain.

iv. Trait is a characteristic that is inherited, like eye color or skin color.

v. Alleles are alternative forms of a gene that produce different choices for a trait, such as brown eyes or blue eyes.

vi. Dominant traits are expressed if only one allele is present and can mask the presence of recessive alleles.

vii. Recessive traits are masked by the presence of a dominant allele, so are only expressed when homozygous.

viii. Genotype is the combination of alleles present in an organism.

ix. Phenotype is outward appearance of an organism: the allele that is expressed.

x. Homozygous means that both alleles for a trait are the same—either both dominant or both recessive

xi. Heterozygous means that the two alleles for a trait are different

xii. Incomplete dominance is an inheritance pattern where the phenotype of a heterozygous organism is an intermediate between the dominant and the recessive traits—neither allele is dominant and capable of masking the presence of the other.

xiii. Sex-linked traits are controlled by genes located on the X chromosome. They are passed from mother to son. Hemophilia and red-green colorblindness are examples in humans.

xiv. Multiple alleles refer to traits that have more than one possible allele. In humans, blood type is such a trait: A, B, and O alleles can combine to produce four possible phenotypes: Type A, type B, Type O and Type AB.

B. Mendel described three laws of inheritance:

i. Law of Dominance – The presence of a dominant allele can mask the presence of a recessive allele.

ii. Law of Segregation –Because each diploid organism has two alleles for each trait, it can produce two types of gametes, one with each allele.

iii. Law of Independent Assortment—genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other.

Use a Punnett Square to predict the offspring of a heterozygous tall pea plant with a homozygous short plant. Tall is dominant over short in peas.

Parent genotypes _____________________

Offspring genotypes ________________________

Offspring phenotypes _______________________

Topic 10: Patterns of Inheritance

A. Vocabulary Terms:

a. mutation – a change in the DNA of an organism that can be passed on to offspring

b. nondisjunction – when chromosomes don’t separate from each other correctly

c. monosomy – in diploid organisms, when one chromosome of a pair is missing

d. trisomy – in diploid organisms, when there is an extra chromosome of any of the pairs

e. autosome – any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

B. Tell how each of the following conditions is inherited.

a. hemophilia – sex-linked recessive trait passed from a mother who is a carrier to sons

because allele is on the X-chromosome

b. Huntington’s disease – an autosomal dominant gene

c. Down Syndrome – Trisomy 21 in humans causes Down Syndrome

d. Duchenne muscular dystrophy – sex-linked recessive gene

e. colorblindness –sex-linked recessive trait

*** All sex-linked recessive traits are passed from a mother who is a carrier to her sons

because the defective allele is on the X-chromosome and sons get their only X chromosome from their mother

Topic 11: Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is a new field of biology in which genes can be transferred from one organism to another.

This field has led to the development of oil spill eating bacteria, bacteria that make human insulin for diabetics, and many disease-resistant crops.

Topic 12: The Theory of Evolution – Theories of Origins of Life and the Universe

Origin of the Universe – Big Bang theory

Origin of Life on Earth –

a. Theory of spontaneous generation of macromolecules from inorganic molecules because conditions on the early Earth was very different from present conditions

b. Reducing atmosphere instead of an oxidizing one (no free atmospheric oxygen)

c. Many small molecules dissolved in "organic soup"

d. Lots of volcanic activity and electrical storms to provide energy

e. Miller-Urey experiment modeled early Earth conditions and produced macromolecules

f. Production of coacervates and microspheres with cell-like structures

Theory of Evolution through inheritance of acquired traits – Lamarck

g. Giraffes have long necks because their ancestors had to stretch to reach high leaves

h. Ducks have webbed feet because their ancestors stretched their toes

i. Traits acquired during an organism’s lifetime were passed to their offspring

j. This theory has been proved to be wrong!

Theory of Evolution through Natural Selection - Darwin

k. Evidence that species change over time

i. Fossil evidence

ii. genetic evidence in DNA, amino acid sequence comparisons

l. Details of Darwin’s theory of natural selection

i. More offspring are produced than can survive—there is a struggle for survival

ii. Offspring are genetically different

iii. Those offspring with traits that give them an advantage for survival are more

likely to survive long enough to reproduce and pass on their traits

iv. Over time, the "advantageous" genes will become more common in the gene pool

v. Changes in the environment cause changes in which genes are selected for or against

m. Macro-evolution is evolution on a large scale over long time periods and involves the appearance of a new species

n. Micro-evolution is evolution on a small scale over a short time period and shows a change on the frequency of a gene within a population

o. Divergent evolution is the most common evolutionary pattern. It is when two related species become less alike over time.

p. Convergent evolution is when two unrelated species independently develop a characteristic that appears to be the same, such as the eye of a human and the eye of an octopus.

Topic 13: Classification

The current system of two-word names was developed by Linnaeus and is called binomial nomenclature.

a. Every species has a two word scientific name in Latin.

b. The scientific name is composed of the organism’s genus first and then the species.

c. The scientific name of an organism is either underlined or written in Italics. The genus is always capitalized and the species is never capitalized.

The most current classification system uses six kingdoms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia

Organisms are grouped from kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, getting more and more similar.

Organisms in the same species are so closely related that they can produce fertile offspring.

**Be able to use a dichotomous key to classify organisms.

Kingdom characteristics

	Archaebacteria	Eubacteria	Protista	Fungi	Plantae	Animalia
Prokaryote or Eukaryote?	Prokaryote	Prokaryote	Eukaryote	Eukaryote	Eukaryote	Eukaryote
Unicellular or Multicellular?	Unicellular	Unicellular	Either	Either	Multicellular	Multicellular
Metabolism	Chemoautotrophs, Methanogens, Thermoacidophiles, Heterotrophs	Heterotrophs, Photosynthetic autotrophs,	Heterotrophs, Photosynthetic autotrophs	Heterotrophs	Photosynthetic autotrophs	Heterotrophs
Cell Wall?	Yes; peptidoglycan not present	Yes; peptidoglycan present	May or may not be present	Yes; made of chitin	Yes; made of cellulose	no
Genes have intron and exons?	Yes	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Reproduction	Binary fission	Binary fission	Binary fission Conjugation Mitosis	Sexual and asexual reproduction	Sexual and asexual reproduction	Sexual and asexual reproduction
Representative organism	Methane-producing bacteria in the guts of cows	Cyanobacteria Streptococcus Bacillus	Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena	Yeast, Mushrooms	Pine tree Daisy	Human Crayfish Sponge

Topic 14: Viruses

Viruses are not alive.

a. They are not made of cells

b. They cannot carry out metabolic activities unless they are in a host cell.

Viruses consist of a piece of genetic material (either DNA or RNA) and a protein coat.
Some may have more complex coverings.

Viruses cannot be treated with antibiotics because they are not alive.

Topic 15: Eubacteria

Three cell types- coccus, bacillus, and spirilla.

All eubacteria have a cell wall containing peptidoglycan.

i. Gram + bacteria have simple cell walls that stain purple with Gram stain.

ii. Gram (-) bacteria have complex cell walls that stain pink with Gram stain.

iii. You cannot use the same antibiotics against Gram (-) and Gram (+) bacteria.

Many eubacteria are helpful (making yogurt, cheese, cleaning oil spills, decomposers, nitrogen-fixing bacteria.)

Cyanobacteria produced (and continue to produce) enough atmospheric oxygen to change our atmosphere to 21% oxygen.

Some eubacteria cause disease (strep throat, E. coli or salmonella food poisoning)

Topic 16: Protista

Kingdom Protista is the most diverse of the eukaryotic kingdoms.

Every eukaryote that is not a fungus, plant, or animal is classified as a protist.

Protists can be animal-like, plant-like, or fungus-like.

Protists can be photosynthetic autotrophs or heterotrophs, free-living or parasitic, unicellular or multicellular.

Algae are photosynthetic and are major producers of atmospheric oxygen.

Some can cause disease.

iv. Malaria is caused by the animal-like protist Plasmodium, which is transmitted to humans by infected mosquitoes.

v. Sleeping sickness is caused by the protist Trypanosoma, and is carried by Tsetse flies.

Topic 17: Fungi

The major phyla of fungi are classified by their reproductive structures.

i. Ascomycota – yeast

ii. Zygomycota – bread mold

iii. Basidiomycota – mushrooms and toadstools

Fungi can be harmful parasites and cause diseases like athlete’s foot.

Fungi can be beneficial (yeast, nitrogen-fixers, decomposers, mushrooms)

Topic 18: Plantae

Plants can be classified according to their reproductive and vascular structures.

	Non-vascular plants	Vascular plants – spores	Vascular plants - seeds
Presence of vascular tissue	No	Yes	Yes
Type of reproduction	Alternation of generation	Alternation of generation	Alternation of generation
Dominant generation	Gametophyte	Sporophyte, but gametophyte is free-living	Sporophyte; gametophyte lives within the body of the sporophyte
Reproductive structures	Sporangium, antheridium, archegonium	Sporangium, antheridium, archegonium	Cones (gymnosperms) Flowers (angiosperms)
Size limits?	Very small	May be large	May be large
Habitat	Moist areas only	Moist areas	Moist or dry areas
Example	Moss, liverworts	Ferns	Pine trees, roses

Leaf structure

Flower structure

Topic 19: Kingdom Animalia (Invertebrates)

Phylum	Representative Animal	Major Evolutionary Advance
Porifera	Sponges	True multicellularity
Cnidaria	Jellyfish, hydras, sea anemones, corals	2 tissue layers, symmetry (radial)
Platyhelminthes	Tapeworms, flatworms	3 tissue layers, bilateral symmetry, cephalization, organ systems
Nematoda	Nematodes, roundworms	Development of a body cavity (pseudocoelom), two gut openings
Mollusca	Snails, slugs, clams, scallops, oysters, squid, octopus	Development of a true coelom
Annelida	Earthworms, marine segmented worms, leeches	Body segmentation
Arthropoda	Crustaceans, insects, centipedes, millipedes, arachnids	Specialized body segments, chitinous exoskeleton, jointed appendages
Echinodermata	Starfish, sand dollars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers	Radial symmetry as adults but bilateral symmetry as larvae, water vascular system, genetic control of embryonic differentiation
Chordata	Sea squirts, lancelets, vertebrates	Dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal gill slits, post-anal tail

Topic 20: Kingdom Animalia (Vertebrates)

	Jawless Fish	Cartilaginous Fish	Bony Fish	Amphibians	Reptiles	Mammals	Birds
Major evolutionary advance	First vertebrates, cranium, closed circulatory system, with ventral heart	Paired fins Scales Jaws streamlined bodies	Swim bladder Operculum Bony skeleton	Lungs Double loop circulatory system	Amniotic egg	Mammary glands, larger brain size, specialized teeth	Flight Hollow bones, air sacs as extensions of lungs, crop, gizzard instead of teeth
Body covering	Thin mucous-covered skin	Tooth-like scales	Flat overlapping scales	Thin moist skin	Thick skin with Scales	Thick skin with Hair	Thick skin with Feathers
Reproduc-tive Pattern	External fertilization, > 500 eggs released	Internal fertilization, < 10 offspring	External fertilization, > 500 eggs released	External fertilization, > 500 eggs released	Internal fertilization amniotic egg < 50 eggs laid	Internal fertilization, uterus, pouch, placenta, nurture their offspring	Internal fertilization, amniotic egg with calcium-rich shell, nurture their offspring
# chambers in heart	2	2	2	3	3 ½	4	4
Endotherm or ectotherm	Ectotherm	Ectotherm	Ectotherm	Ectotherm	Ectotherm	Endotherm	Endotherm
Respiration	Gills	Gills	Gills	Lungs, skin	Lungs	Lungs	Lungs, air sacs
Representa-tive animal	Lamprey, hagfish	Shark, skate, ray	Trout	Frog, salamander	Lizard, snake, tortoise	Kangaroo, rat, lion, human	Parrot, robin

Topic 21: Human Body Systems

	Skeletal, Muscular, and Integumen-tary	Circulatory and Respiratory	Immune	Digestive and Excretory	Nervous and Sense Organs	Endocrine	Reproduc-tive
Major structures	Bones// muscles (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth)// skin, hair, and nails	Heart, blood vessels, blood// air passages and lungs	Lymph nodes and vessels, white blood cells	Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small and large intestines// kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, skin, and lungs	Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs	Glands (adrenal, thyroid, pancreas) hypothal-amus	Ovaries, uterus, vagina, mammary glands in females, testes and penis in males
Functions	Provides structure, suppor4ts and protects the internal organs// supports and moves trunk and limbs, moves substances through the body// Protects against pathogens, helps regulate body temperature	Transports nutrients and wastes to and from all body tissues// Carries air into and out of lungs, where gases (O₂ and CO₂) are exchanged	Protects against infection and diseases	Digests and stores food, absorbs nutrients, eliminated indigestible wastes (feces)// Eliminates metabolic wastes, maintains water and chemical balance of the body	Controls and coordinated body movements and senses, controls consciousness and creativity, helps monitor and maintain other body systems	Maintains homeostasis, regulates metabolism, water and mineral balance Also regulates growth, sexual development, and reproduction	Produces eggs and milk in females, sperm in males, and if fertilization occurs, maintains offspring while in uterus

Topic 22: Ecology

Levels of organization in the environment from most specific to most general:

iv. A group of organisms of the same species in the same place at the same time is called a population.

v. A group of different populations in the same place at the same time is a community.

vi. A group of interacting communities and the nonliving parts of their environment is called an ecosystem.

vii. A group of ecosystems compose the largest ecological unit, the biosphere.

viii. Biotic factors in an ecosystem are the living things within that ecosystem.

ix. Abiotic factors in an ecosystem are the nonliving parts of the ecosystem: water, land, atmosphere, for example.

Relationships between organisms within ecosystems

i. Organisms can be related in food chains and food webs depending on what eats what.

ii. Food chains and food webs trace the flow of energy through the ecosystem.

iii. An organism’s habitat is where it lives.

iv. An organism’s niche is what its particular role is within its ecosystem.

v. Organisms may be related in a variety of ways:

a. Predator-prey

b. Commensalism

c. Parasitism

d. Mutualism

C. Energy flow through ecosystems

i. Energy for the living things on Earth comes from the Sun.

ii. Energy pyramids are quantitative representations of available energy at each level of the pyramid.

iii. Energy pyramids consist of producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, and tertiary consumers.

vi. Energy pyramids rarely have more than 4 levels because at each level only 10% of the previous level’s energy is available to the next level.

D. Major biomes of the world

Biome	Average yearly temperature range	Average yearly precipitation	Soil	Vegetation
Tundra	-26^oC to 12 ^oC	Less than 25 cm	Moist thin topsoil over permafrost; nutrient-poor,	Mosses, lichens, dwarf woody plants
Taiga	-10^oC to 14 ^oC	35-75 cm	Low in nutrients, very acidic	Needle-leaved evergreen plants
Temperate deciduous forest	6^oC to 28^oC	75-125 cm	Moist, moderate nutrient levels	Broad-leaf trees and shrubs
Temperate grassland	0^oC to 25^o+C	25-75 cm	Deep layer of topsoil, very rich in nutrients	Dense, tall grasses in moist areas, short clumped grasses in drier areas
Desert	7^oC to 38^oC	Less than 25 cm	Dry, often sandy, nutrient-poor	Succulent plants and scattered grasses
Savanna	16^oC to 34 ^oC	75-150 cm	Dry, thin topsoil, porous, nutrient-poor	Tall grasses, scattered trees
Tropical rain forest	20^o C to 34^o-C	200-400 cm	Moist, thin topsoil, nutrient-poor	Broad-leaf evergreen trees and shrubs

E. Man’s effect on the ecosystem and possible solutions to the following problems

i. global warming

ii. acid rain

iii. air pollution

iv. water pollution

v. depletion of non-renewable resources